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Mac Hack VI, also called Mac Hack, MacHack VI and the Greenblatt Chess Program, was a chess program, developed in 1966 and 1967 at MIT by Richard Greenblatt assisted by Donald Eastlake for a DEC PDP-6. It was developed entirely in MIDAS, the PDP-6 macro assembler. The Greenblatt Chess Program was the first computer program to play chess in human tournament competitions and be granted a chess rating [4].

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The name Mac Hack VI comes from Project MAC a large sponsored research program located at MIT. Over time, it became a hack in the sense of Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, a book by Steven Levy in which Greenblatt appears. The number VI refers to the PDP-6 machine for which it was written [5].

Mac Hack VI was the first chess program which uses a transposition table, but not yet iterative deepening. It regular searched five plies plus quiescence search and a conditional intermediate layer if own pieces were en prise.

In his 1970 paper A New Hashing Method with Application for Game Playing[6], where he introduced Zobrist hashing, Albert Zobrist mentions a possible hashing method to obtain an integer which describes the board configuration, and then to divide the integer by the hash table size and use the remainder as hash address and the quotient as key. However, the integer which describes the board may occupy many computer words, and the divide will be complicated and slow. Further the quotient may occupy several words as well, thus most of the transposition table would be occupied by these keys if type 1 errors were to be avoided. While Zobrist mentions Mac Hack VI used a 32K hash table, he does not made it explicit that Mac Hack used this divide technique.

Hackintosh About This Mac

More recently, Robert Hyatt, who had a chance to talk with Greenblatt several times, mentioned Mac Hack's hash function used a series of xor operations on occupied squares [7].

Inspired by the Kotok-McCarthy-Program, Greenblatt thought he could do better and he succeeded to do so. Mac Hack VI was Shannon Type B, but was less narrow than Kotok-McCarthy's {4, 3, 2, 2, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0} and used a width of {15, 15, 9, 9, 7, ...} in tournament play. Quote by Richard Greenblatt concerning Mac Hack VI from his Oral History[8]:

Most of this printout was analysis from the Kotok program. And I also saw some kind of a textual thing, which I don’t believe was Kotok’s thesis, but which had some of the same information as Kotok’s thesis. It was probably some kind of a technical report, or something, that was anticipatory to Kotok’s thesis [9]. Anyway, one of the things I remembered, and which I just talked with Kotok, as a matter of fact, a few days ago, was the detail that they had is Alpha Beta, and so forth, and they had these whips, and the whips were set at 4, 4, 3, 3, 2, 2, 1, 1. In other words, that was how many. It would first look at the top ply. It would look at the four best moves. The next plys, it would look at the three best. Next ply, two best, next ply, one best. Well, I just recognized immediately that that was incredibly wrong.

You see, basically looking at only one wide, you just have no signals or noise function. In other words, you look at one move, which you think is the best, but there’s a tremendous amount of noise. Well, you look at some more moves, and if you find that one of those are better, you’ve effectively rejected some noise. Well, essentially the thing that I knew that they did, they were very weak chess players, both McCarthy and Kotok. And basically they had a very romanticized view of chess. And so I knew, however, that chess is a very, very precise game. And you really- the name of the game is take the other guy’s pieces, and you don’t just go along. In any kind of a strong game, you don’t just lose pieces, win pieces, lose pieces, win pieces. I mean, if you lose even a single pawn without compensation, then you may have drawing chances, if you’re lucky. Otherwise, the game is lost. Losing more than one pawn almost invariably results in loss of the game, period.

Mac Hack VI incorporated a table of opening positions with selected replies. The opening book was compiled by two MIT students, Larry Kaufman, a chess master and top rated U. S. Junior player, and Alan Baisley a chess expert. It is noteworthy that Larry Kaufman started his computer chess career over 50 years ago as team member of Mac Hack!Quote from Oral History of Richard Greenblatt:

And it was compacted pretty efficiently. And you know, there was a – by later standards it wasn't so big, but at the time it was pretty good sized. I don't know I think it was probably 8,000 or 10,000 moves in there.He – Kaufman spent quite a while doing it. Of course, a number of the moves, you know, would – the game would just play it. There was very little chance of it actually staying in the book. You know, the – but I think Kaufman did a good job and he did – we did perceive some of the – well of course, one of the basic things about computer programs, really to the present day, is that they're very tactical. It's much easier for them to see that the tactics than the strategy. So what's called a closed position is hard for a computer. That's where all the pieces are blocking each other and it's very long maneuvering. Whereas, an open position which is sort of tactical combinations is much more to the computer's liking. So therefore, when designing the opening book, you want to kind of play offbeat and kind of unbalanced type openings that tend to lead to these closed position – open positions, which are then good for the computer. And so we realized that and you know, I think Kaufman did a fairly good job of ...

Robert Q

First tournament game by a computer, Carl Wagner (2190) - Mac Hack VI aka 'Robert Q', January 21, 1967 [10].'Robert Q', a computer programmed to play chess, was beaten in its first competition with a human, Carl Wagner. The computer, at MIT in Cambridge, Mass., was operated by Allen Moulton, and R. William Gosper, while Wagner made his moves several miles away in the YMCU in Boston. The moves were relayed into the computer by teletype operated by Alan Baisley. 'Robert Q' was entered as an experiment, in the monthly Boylston Chess Club Tournament at the Young Mens Christian Union.

Hacks

Allen Moulton and R. William Gosper operating 'Robert Q' on a PDP-6[11][12]

Carl Wagner and Alan Baisley (right) [13][14]

The Dreyfus Match

In 1967 AI critic Hubert Dreyfus[15][16] at MIT was challenged by Greenblatt to play a game against his program.Quote from Oral History of Richard Greenblatt:

And so then as word got around- Well, there was a guy a MIT in those days named Hubert Dreyfus, who was a prominent critic of artificial intelligent, and made some statements of the form, you know, computers will never be any good for chess, and so forth. And, of course, he was, again, very romanticized. He was not a strong chess player. However, he thought he was, or I guess he knew was wasn’t world class, but he thought he was a lot better than he was. So anyway, I had this chess program and basically Jerry Sussman, who’s a professor at MIT now, and who was also a member of our group, had played. It was around and it was available on the machine. People played it, and so forth. And basically Sussman brought over Dreyfus and said, well, how would you like to have a friendly game or something. Dreyfus said, oh, sure. And sure enough, Dreyfus sat down and got beat. So this immediately got quite a bit of publicity.

Herbert Simon, an AI pioneer, watched the match. He said [17] :It was a wonderful game - a real cliffhanger between two woodpushers with bursts of insights and fiendish plans ... great moments of drama and disaster that go in such games.

IFIP Match

In August 1968, at the 4th IFIPconference held in Edinburgh, Mac Hack running on a PDP-10 won an exhibition match versus a program written by John J. Scott, running on a ICL 1909/5. The game was analyzed by Jack Good, as published in Donald Michie'sMachine Intelligence 4[18].

ETH-MIT Match

In 1968, Gerald Tripard, postdoc at ETH Zurich and co-author of the chess program Charly, asked Richard Greenblatt for a match versus Mac Hack VI. Three games were played in October and November 1968 via ham radio[19], all three won by Mac Hack VI [20][21][22].

The 70s

Mac Hack was ported to a PDP-10 and was the first computer chess program to be widely distributed. It didn't play any ACM or ICCA tournaments, though. In 1977, Mac Hack played three exhibition games against Bobby Fischer[23]. In 1978, Mac Hack (dubbed Machack) played a match versus the readers of the Computerwoche, a German weekly computer magazine affiliated with the International Data Group, one move per week [24][25][26] :

see main article CHEOPS

In the end of the 70s a brute force version of Mac Hack was ported to the Chess-orientated Processing System CHEOPS[27] , one of the first dedicated hardware approaches in computer chess, which original conception and hardware design was instrumented by Edward Fredkin. Unfortunately it never competed against other programs of that time.

  • Richard Greenblatt, Donald Eastlake, Stephen D. Crocker (1967). The Greenblatt Chess Program. Proceedings of the AfiPs Fall Joint Computer Conference, Vol. 31, reprinted (1988) in Computer Chess Compendium, pdf from The Computer History Museum or as pdf or ps from DSpace at MIT
  • L. Stephen Coles (1967). Memorandum - Chess at Carnegie Tech. pdf[28][29]
  • Richard Greenblatt et al. (197?). Greenblatt Program Info. (draft) pdf hosted by Lars Brinkhoff
  • Paul Rushton, Tony Marsland (1973). Current Chess Programs: A Summary of their Potential and Limitations. INFOR Journal of the Canadian Information Processing Society Vol. 11, No. 1, pdf
  • Monroe Newborn (1975). Computer Chess. Academic Press, New York, N.Y.
Chapter IV. The Greenblatt Chess Program
  • John Moussouris, Jack Holloway, Richard Greenblatt (1979). CHEOPS: A Chess-orientated Processing System. Machine Intelligence 9 (Jean Hayes Michie, Donald Michie and L.I. Mikulich editors) Ellis Horwood, Chichester, 1979, reprinted (1988) in Computer Chess Compendium
  • Another reason for Fischer's reappearance? by Steven Edwards, rgc, September 10, 1992
  • Re: Berliner vs. Botvinnik Some interesting points by Bradley C. Kuszmaul, rgcc, November 06, 1996 » Transposition Table in Mac Hack
  • Re: backward thinking & checking your work by Robert Hyatt, rgcc, May 13, 1998
  • Fischer vs. MIT's Greenblatt program, 1978 by Robert Hyatt, rgcc, February 27, 1999
  • More Fischer v Greenblatt by scorsi, rgcc, February 28, 1999
  • Re: What Chess programs existed in the '60s? by David Blackman, CCC, April 13, 2000
  • MacHack VI by kaqs, CCC, August 28, 2005
  • MacHack under PDP-10 emulation by Ian Osgood, CCC, February 03, 2011
  • Opening Moves: Origins of Computer Chess, Getting Going from The Computer History Museum
  • Classic Computer Chess - ... The programs of yesteryear by Carey, hosted by the Internet Archive[30]
  • Mac Hack Attack by Bill Wall, Chess.com, May 13, 2008
  • Mac Hack VI competes by Lawrence J. Krakauer
  • Chess stories by Lawrence J. Krakauer
  • I resign by Lawrence J. Krakauer
  • Computer chess via ham radio by Lawrence J. Krakauer
  • Chess and Canada by David Cohen, 2005 - covers Phil Haley - Dataline PDP-10 (MacHack 7)
  • 63-chess.mp4 hosted by MIT CSAIL
  • PDP-10/its · GitHub (OCM 470 and accompanying files is a 1980 version of Mac Hack) maintained by Lars Brinkhoff and Eric Swenson
  • The Adventure of Chess Programming (Part 2) by Frederic Friedel, ChessBase News, February 12, 2019
  1. ↑I resign by Lawrence J. Krakauer
  2. ↑Chess stories by Lawrence J. Krakauer
  3. ↑see also 63-chess.mp4 hosted by MIT CSAIL
  4. ↑Richard Greenblatt, Donald Eastlake, Stephen D. Crocker (1967). The Greenblatt Chess Program. Proceedings of the AfiPs Fall Joint Computer Conference, Vol. 31, reprinted (1988) in Computer Chess Compendium, pdf from The Computer History Museum or as or ps] from [1]] at MIT
  5. ↑Mac Hack from Wikipedia
  6. ↑Albert Zobrist (1970). A New Hashing Method with Application for Game Playing. Technical Report #88, Computer Science Department, The University of Wisconsin, Madison, reprinted (1990) in ICCA Journal, Vol. 13, No. 2, pdf
  7. ↑Re: What are you allowed to learn from a GPL engine (eg. Stockfish) ? by Robert Hyatt, CCC, June 02, 2020 (Engine Origins requires registration)
  8. ↑Oral History of Richard Greenblatt (pdf) from The Computer History Museum
  9. ↑Alan Kotok (1962). Artificial Intelligence Project - MIT Computation Center: Memo 41 - A Chess Playing Program. pdf
  10. ↑MIT Computer Loses to Human in Chess. Sun Journal (Lewiston), January 23, 1967, Google News
  11. ↑MIT Computer Loses to Human in Chess. Sun Journal (Lewiston), January 23, 1967, Google News
  12. ↑See also 50 years ago “Robert Q”, a computer programmed to play chess, was beaten in its first competition with a human in the monthly Boylston Chess Club Tournament in Boston. Reddit
  13. ↑Richard Greenblatt, Donald Eastlake, Stephen D. Crocker (1967). The Greenblatt Chess Program. Proceedings of the AfiPs Fall Joint Computer Conference, Vol. 31, pp. 808
  14. ↑Carl Wagner vs Robert Q from lichess.org
  15. ↑Hubert L. Dreyfus (1965). Alchemy and Artificial Intelligence. Rand Paper
  16. ↑Hubert L. Dreyfus (1972, 1979, 1991). What Computers Can't Do.
  17. ↑Mac Hack Attack by Bill Wall, Chess.com, May 13, 2008
  18. ↑Jack Good (1969). Analysis of the machine chess game, J. Scott (White), ICL-1900 versus R.D. Greenblatt, PDP-10. Machine Intelligence Vol. 4
  19. ↑Computer chess via ham radio by Lawrence J. Krakauer
  20. ↑The first inter-computer chess game via ham radio
  21. ↑October 30, 1968 letter from Richard Greenblatt to G. Tripard
  22. ↑Games 2 and 3
  23. ↑Greenblatt Chess Program versus Bobby Fischer three games played 1977 from chessgames.com
  24. ↑Wer setzt Machack matt?], January 05, 1978, Computerwoche 1/1978
  25. ↑Schach dem Computer: Ivan Kühnmund (32) wird die Partie 'CW-Leser gegen Machack' kommentieren, January 20, 1978, Computerwoche 4/1978
  26. ↑Schach dem Computer, November 10, 1978, Computerwoche 46/1978
  27. ↑John Moussouris, Jack Holloway, Richard Greenblatt (1979). CHEOPS: A Chess-orientated Processing System. Machine Intelligence 9 (Jean Hayes Michie, Donald Michie and L.I. Mikulich editors) Ellis Horwood, Chichester, 1979, pp. 351-360, reprinted (1988) in Computer Chess Compendium
  28. ↑Letter from L. Stephen Coles to Allen Newell and Herbert Simon at Carnegie Tech , April 23, 1967 after losing from Mac Hack VI
  29. ↑Bendix G-20 G-21 - Wikipedida
  30. ↑Re: Old programs CHAOS and USC by Dann Corbit, CCC, July 11, 2015
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Apple computers will be moving away from Intel chips to its own ARM-based design. An interesting thing about Apple as a company is that it has never felt the need to tie itself to a particular system architecture or ISA. Whereas a company like Microsoft mostly tied its fortunes to Intel’s x86 architecture, and IBM, Sun, HP and other giants preferred vertical integration, Apple is currently moving towards its fifth system architecture for its computers since the company was formed.

What makes this latest change possibly unique, however, is that instead of Apple relying on an external supplier for CPUs and peripheral ICs, they are now targeting a vertical integration approach. Although the ARM ISA is licensed to Apple by Arm Holdings, the ‘Apple Silicon’ design that is used in Apple’s ARM processors is their own, produced by Apple’s own engineers and produced by foundries at the behest of Apple.

In this article I would like to take a look back at Apple’s architectural decisions over the decades and how they made Apple’s move towards vertical integration practically a certainty.

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